...d glass, usually raised above the ground on stilts, or pilotis, and often endoed ith roof gardens intended to compensate for the loss of usable floor area at ground level.After orld ar II, Le Corbusier moved aay from purism and toard the so-called ne brutalism, hich utilized rough-hen forms of concrete, stone, stucco, and glass. Nely recognized in official art circles as an important 20th-century innovator, he represented 1946 France on the planning team for the United Nations Headquarters building in Ne York City--a particularly satisfying honor for an architect hose prize-inning design 1927 for the League of Nations headquarters had been rejected. Simultaneously, he as commissioned by the French government to plan and build his prototypical Vertical City in Marseille. The result as the Unite dHabitation 1946-52--a huge block of 340 superimposed villas raised above the ground on massive pilotis, laced ith to elevated thoroughfares of shops and other services and topped by a roof-garden gymnasium that contained, among other things, a sculptured playground of concrete forms and a peripheral track for joggers.His orldide reputation led to a commission from the Indian government to plan the city of Chandigarh, the ne capital of the Punjab, and to design and build the Government Center 1950-70 and several of the citys other structures. These poetic, handcrafted buildings represented a second, more humanistic phase in Le Corbusiers ork that also as reflected in his lyrical Pilgrim Church of Notre Dame du Haut at Ronchamp 1951-55 in the Vosges Mountains of France in his rugged monastery of La Tourette, France 1954-59 and in the structures he designed from 1958 at Ahmedabad, in India. Le Corbusier accidentally droned in the Mediterranean on Aug. 27, 1965.Frank Lloyd right, b. Richland Center, is., June 8, 1867, d. Apr. 9, 1959, as one of the most innovative and influential figures in modern architecture. In his radically original designs as ell as in his prolific ritings he championed the virtues of hat he termed organic architecture, a building style based on natural forms.After briefly studying civil engineering at the University of isconsin, right moved to Chicago, here he ent to ork 1887 as a draftsman in the office of Adler and Sullivan. hile orking under Louis Sullivan--hom right called Lieber Meister--he began designing and building on his on a fe private houses for some of Adler and Sullivans clients. These bootlegged houses, as right called them, soon revealed an independent talent quite distinct from that of Sullivan. rights houses had lo, seeping rooflines hanging over uninterrupted alls of indos his plans ere centered on massive brick or stone fireplaces at the heart of the house his rooms became increasingly open to one another and the overall configuration of his plans became more and more asymmetrical, reaching out toard some real or imagined prairie horizon.In contrast to the expansive openness of those houses hich inspired the prairie school, rights urban buildings unlike Sullivans, for instance tended to be alled in, somehat inhospitable to the city, and lit primarily through skylights. hereas to of the finest buildings of rights early period--the Larkin Company Administration Building 1904 demolished 1950 in Buffalo, N.Y., and the Unity Church 1906 in Oak Park, Ill.--seemed to proclaim rights distaste for urban environments, houses he designed in the same period such as Buffalos Martin House, 1904, and Chicagos Robie House, 1909 reached out into the landscape ith large, glazed alls, terraces, and lo-slung roof overhangs.right orked on his on after 1893, hen the issue of his bootlegged houses finally caused a break ith Adler and Sullivans office. During the 20 years that folloed he became one of the best-knon and, because of a tempestuous personal life, one of the most notorious architects in the United States. To editions of his ork brought out 1910, 1911 by the Berlin publisher asmuth, along ith a parallel exhibition that traveled throughout Europe, boosted rights fame in European architectural circles and influenced such key figures in contemporary architecture as Ludig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier.His reputation assured on both sides of the Atlantic, right began to reinforce the philosophical underpinnings of his innovative building style. In keeping ith his agrarian bias, right proclaimed that the structural principles found in natural forms should guide modern American architecture. He praised the virtues of an organic architecture that ould use reinforced concrete in the configurations found in seashells and snails and ould build skyscrapers the ay trees ere built--that is, ith a central trunk deeply rooted in the ground and floors cantilevered from that trunk like branches. Spaces ithin such buildings ould be animated by natural light alloed to penetrate the interiors and to travel across textured surfaces as the incidence of sunlight and moonlight changed.His vie of architecture as essentially romantic. Although right often paid lip service to the rational systems called for by mass-produced building modular planning and prefabrication, his efforts in those directions seemed halfhearted at best. The most spectacular buildings of his mature period--Tokyos Imperial Hotel 1915-22 demolished 1968 Fallingater Kaufmann House 1936, Mill Run, Pa. the S. C. Johnson and Son ax Company Administration Center 1936-50, Racine, is. Taliesin est 1938-59 and Ne York Citys Guggenheim Museum completed 1959--ere based on forms borroed from nature, and the intentions ere clearly romantic, poetic, and intensely personal. At his death he left a rich heritage of completed buildings of almost uniform splendor fe disciples, hoever, could match the special genius reflected in his orks. Unlike alter Gropius, Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, and other giants of modern architecture, right as, at heart, an essentially idiosyncratic architect hose influence as immense but hose pupils ere fe.Modern architecture is a form of building design characterized by the use of unornamented industrial materials--principally steel, glass, and concrete--to make simple, geometric forms standing free in space. Such buildings, hich began to appear around 1922 in Germany, the Netherlands, the USSR, and France, ere first grouped together under a single stylistic heading in a 1932 exhibition titled Modern Architecture held at the Museum of Modern Art in Ne York City. The exhibitions organizers, the critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and the architect C. Philip Johnson, detected in a variety of post-orld ar I buildings from several countries a shared emphasis on volume over form, asymmetrical composition, and avoidance of ornamentation. These elements, Hitchcock and Johnson proclaimed, constituted an International Style--the result of a century-long search for a style suited to modern materials and engineering techniques, freed from borroed forms.Some of the architects cited by Hitchcock and Johnso...
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